Сетевой портал "Заметки по еврейской истории"

СИНАГОГА ВОРМСА

К северу от старого города восстановлен старый еврейский квартал Вормса. До второй мировой войны Вормс имел одну из самых старых еврейских общин в Германии. Разрушенная в войне синагога в романском стиле (Старая Синагога) была точно восстановлена, и включает средневековую микву и еврейский музей.

История

Еврейская община жила в районе гетто в Вормсе по крайней мере с 10-го столетия. Первая городская синагога была построена в 1034. Оригинальная надпись, оставленная основателем, была помещена в стену рядом со входом восстановленной синагоги.

Школа была пристроена к синагоге, один из учеников которой достиг большой известности, как ученый: раввин Шломо Бен Ицхак из Труа (Франция), известный как Раши, который учился здесь приблизительно в 1060 году. Современный памятник Раши стоит во внутреннем дворе школы, которая теперь называется Дом Раши. В течение столетий Дом Раши использовался как школа, молитвенный дом, дансинг, свадебный зал и больница. С 1982 здесь разместился городской еврейский Музей.

Оригинальная синагога была разрушена в ходе Крестового похода 1096 г., когда антисемитское насилие пронеслось по Европе так же, как и в Святой Земле. К сожалению, это было только первым из многих случаев разрушения этой синагоги и еврейской общины Вормса.

Меньше, чем столетие спустя, в то время, как в Вормсе начали строить кафедральный Собор, построили новую мужскую синагогу, позже ставшую известной, как «Старая Синагога». Закончена в 1175 в позднем романском стиле теми же самыми масонами (каменщиками), которые строили собор, с использованием тех же самых проектов. Миква (ритуальная ванна) была добавлена к комплексу в 1186 г., а в 1212 г. была добавлена к северному концу женская комната в раннем готическом стиле.

Синагога повреждалась и восстанавливалась неоднократно в течение средневековья, особенно после погромов в 1349, когда евреи были обвинены в эпидемии чумы, и в 1615. В течение многих реконструкций были осуществлены различные модификации в соответствии с требованиями времени.

Старая Синагога была сожжена в Хрустальную Ночь в 1938 и подверглась дальнейшему разрушению во время бомбежек Второй Мировой Войны и злонамеренным разрушением вплоть до 1945 года. Еврейская община Вормса была полностью уничтожена.

Нет больше существенной общины евреев в Вормсе. Однако, из-за исторической значимости синагоги она была восстановлена и повторно освящена в 1961 г. Она официально принадлежит еврейскому сообществу Майнца, и иногда используется в ритуальных целях. Еврейские религиозные члены американской армии также используют ее для Богослужения.

На что стоит обратить внимание.

Старая Синагога была восстановлена в 1961 с использованием множества оригинальных камней. Существенное использование в реконструкции сохранившихся фрагментов здания включает кладку, приблизительно до 1.5 метров высотой, дверь в романском стиле, вырезанную масонами (каменщиками) собора, и надписью основателя синагоги 1034 г. (в восстановленной стене рядом со входом).

Синагога состоит из главной мужской синагоги с двумя боковыми нефами в прямоугольном здании, и женской синагоги, примыкающей к северной стороне, с центральными опорами. Расположенная в западном крыле мужской синагоги комната для изучения Талмуда, известная как часовня Раши (капелла Раши), была построена в 1623-24 и восстановлена в 1854-55 г.г.

В нескольких шагах к югу от синагоги находится очаровательная средневековая миква (ритуальная ванна), датируемая 1186 г. Это открытая структура с каменной лестницей, ведущей вниз к квадратному деревянному бассейну. Галерея в романском стиле обрамляет бассейн сверху.

В Доме Раши (в бывшей школе, где учился известный ученый) размещен еврейский Музей с моделями, документами, планами, религиозными объектами, фрагментами оригинальной синагоги и фотографиями, которые обеспечивают понимание длинной и богатой истории иудаизма в Вормсе.

Наконец, никакой тур по еврейскому наследию Вормса не был бы полным без посещения Святых Песков (еврейского кладбища) в юго-западном лютеранском конце города, которое является одним из самых старых и самых больших еврейских кладбищ в Европе.

Сжатая информация:

Названия: Синагога Вормса; Старая Синагога; Мужская Синагога
Местоположение: Вормс, Германия
Категории: Синагоги; Музеи
Вера: Иудаизм
Статус: активный
Дата: 1175; восстановленна в 1961г.
Архитектура: Романский готический стиль

Статья на английском языке с фотографиями:
http://www.sacred-destinations.com/germ ... -synagogue
Фотогалерея: http://www.sacred-destinations.com/germ ... ue-photos/

Перевод Матроскина
декабрь 2009 г.

Спасибо большое, очень интересно,

изображение этой синагоги часто вижу на популярном в наших краях кидушном вине:

_________________

...לִבִּי בְמִזְרָח וְאָנֹכִי בְּסוֹף מַעֲרָב

Synagogue architecture

Unlike many of the buildings for worship in other religions (like the cruciform plan of churches, or the dome and minarets of mosques) , there has never been a single dominant style for synagogue architecture. Synagogues have been built in whatsoever style was in vogue in the place and at the time of building. Even ancient synagogues show this variation — the ruined synagogue of Merom is in severe Doric while that of Kafr Bir'im is in a Græco-Roman modification of Corinthian. Synagogues do incorporate some common features in the interior, but even that is subject to variation.

Basic design

Blueprint for synagogues
It is a myth that synagogues are based on the destroyed Temple in Jerusalem. There is no set blueprint for synagogues and the architectural shapes and interior designs of synagogues vary greatly. Other local religious buildings and national culture usually influence synagogue architecture. The myth may have arisen because synagogues have been referred to in the Rabbinical Literature as Little Temples and indeed their popularity originated with the destruction of the original Temple as an alternative to the central worship in Jerusalem. According to tradition, the Divine Presence can be found wherever there is a minyan (a quorum, of ten — in Orthodox Judaism defined as ten Jewish men aged 13 or over).

A synagogue may contain any (or none) of these features: an ark, called aron ha-kodesh by Ashkenazim and hekhal by Sephardim, where the Torah scrolls are kept (the ark is often closed with an ornate curtain (parokhet) outside or inside the ark doors); a large elevated reader's platform, called bimah by eastern Ashkenazim, almemmar (or balemmer) by Central and Western Ashkenazim and tebah by Sephardim, where the Torah is read (and from where the services are conducted in Sephardi synagogues); a ner tamid, a constantly lit light as a reminder of the constantly lit menorah of the Temple in Jerusalem; and, mainly in Ashkenazi synagogues, a pulpit facing the congregation to preach from and a pulpit or amud (Hebrew for "post" or "column") facing the Ark for the Hazzan (reader) to lead the prayers from. A synagogue may have artworks — especially ornamentation of the main interior features; but normally not three-dimensional artwork (sculpture) depicting naturally occurring objects, as these are considered to be like idolatry. Rabbis have suggested that a synagogue should have twelve windows, plain or depicting the Twelve Tribes of Israel, to remind participants that their prayers are not individual but communal, i.e., for all the people of Israel, present or not. This particular suggestion, however, is honored far more in the breach than in the observance.

The synagogue, or if it is a multi-purpose building, prayer sanctuaries within the synagogue, should face towards Jerusalem. Thus sanctuaries in the Western world generally face east, while those east of Israel face west. Sanctuaries in Israel face towards Jerusalem. But this orientation need not be exact, and occasionally synagogues face other directions for structural reasons, in which case the community may face Jerusalem when standing for prayers.

Full article: http://en.allexperts.com/e/s/sy/synagog ... ecture.htm

ARCHITECTURE AND ARCHITECTS

http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jso ... 01259.html

История не сохранила ни каких-либо доказательств существования еврейских национальных традиций в архитектуре культовых сооружений, ни имен еврейских архитекторов до начала 18-го века нашей эры.

(Далее раздел о современном периоде)

In modern times there is an abundance of Jewish architects but – except perhaps to a certain extent in Israel – no Jewish architecture to speak of. The men who designed the synagogues for European communities may well have been engaged by their coreligionists for domestic architecture as well. The names of medieval Jewish magnates are frequently associated with stone dwelling-houses, some of which still stand. There is indeed reason to believe that in England – perhaps for reasons of security – it was the Jews who pioneered domestic stone building, a fashion they introduced from the Continent. Notwithstanding such isolated instances, however, it is clear that Jews played little or no part in general architecture before the age of Emancipation. It was only in the 19th century that Jewish architects began to emerge in general practice and to be given civic, monumental, or even ecclesiastical commissions in many countries of Europe without any apparent discrimination. Curiously enough, two of the first Jewish architects to have attained some distinction in the field were both wealthy English Sephardim: the convert to Christianity, George *Basevi, and David *Mocatta. The latter's designs for a series of railway stations in the 1830s and 1840s had a lasting influence. The same tradition of the "gentleman architect" was represented somewhat later by the German Georg Itzig, who designed the princely Palazzo Revoltella in Trieste, and in the same Italian Renaissance style, the Deutsche Reichsbank in Berlin (1879). Around the turn of the century many other Reichsbank branches, designed with the floridity characteristic of German architecture of this period, were built by E. Jacobsthal (1839–1902). In Austria a pioneer in theater architecture was Oscar *Strnad, and in Germany Oskar *Kaufmann worked in the same field, most notably in his Stadttheater in Bremerhaven (1909) and his Komoedie Theater in Berlin (1924). As in other spheres of modern culture, Jews were among the first to break away from conventional forms in architecture. In Germany a pioneer was Alfred Messel, whose Wertheim Department Store in Berlin (1897), a remarkable combination of stone, steel, and glass, is generally considered one of the important influences on modern architecture, notwithstanding its neo-Gothic romanticism. Another modern master was Eric *Mendelsohn, whose expressionistic buildings, such as his Einstein Tower in Potsdam (1919–20), have a highly sculptural appearance. At the turn of the century Budapest was a city vibrating with life. In the feverish building boom of the era, Jewish architects played a considerable role. A new style, Secession (Art Nouveau, Jugendstil), came to the fore, which in Hungary merged folkloristic, and even Oriental motifs, with historicizing styles. In the center of the new architecture stood the non-Jewish architect Ödön Lechner, and many of his helpers and coworkers were Jews or of Jewish descent. His works, and those of other architects of the period were not only neglected, but even frowned upon in later decades only to be restored in the 1970s and 1980s. At present they are highly valued sites of the Hungarian capital. Elsewhere in Europe, among the most influential of modern French architects was Alexandre Persitz (1910– ). He was editor of the review Architecture d'aujourd'hui and a leading figure in the reconstruction of the city of Le Havre after World War II, as well as the architect of a number of synagogues. Other influential contemporary French architects include Emmanuel Pontrémoli, who taught at the Ecole des Beaux Arts in

Paris, Georges Goldberg, Georges Gumpel, and Claude *Meyer-Lévy. In Italy mention should be made of Manfredo d'Urbino and Bruno Zevi, who in addition to being a practicing architect and a writer on the subject was secretary general of the Italian Institute of Town Planning; Julien Flegenheimer (1880–1938), the brother of the author Edmund *Fleg, was architect of the Palace of the League of Nations in Geneva. One of the most interesting and most successful workers' housing projects, the Spaarndammerplantsoen in Amsterdam, was designed by the Dutchman Michel de *Klerk. Indeed, it is perhaps symptomatic of the intense Jewish interest in social welfare and social activism that Jewish architects have tended to be associated with such public developments in disproportionate numbers. One of the most famous of these is the Karl Marx Hof in Vienna, built in 1930 by the partnership of Frank and Wlach. In Russia, particularly since the Bolshevik Revolution, a number of Jewish architects have had prominent public careers. One of the first of these, J.C. Gewuertz, was a leader of the avant-garde even in prerevolutionary times. In the 1920s he won great esteem and became dean of the school of architecture of the Academy. The architect A.I. Gegello (1891–1965) was well known for his House of Culture in Leningrad, reputed to have the best acoustics of any theater in Russia; his Botkin Memorial Hospital for Infectious Diseases is a striking protest against the over-centralization and dehumanization of modern medicine. N.A. Trotski's glass factory "Belyi Bychek," designed in the 1920s, is a bold and masterly integration of diverse elements. His project for the Palace of the Soviets in Leningrad in 1937, however, exhibits a lifeless neoclassicism which may perhaps be attributed to circumstances. A country in the New World in which Jews have been particularly active in the field of architecture is Brazil. A forerunner of modern architecture in Brazil was Russian-born Gregori Warchavchik (1896–1972), who built the first modern house in the country in São Paulo in 1927 and supervised the Brazilian architecture exhibit in the Exhibition of the Modern House which he organized in 1930. Rino Levi (1901–1965) was among the most prolific of Brazilian architects, working in American skyscraper style. In this he was rivaled by Henrique Mindlin (1911–1971), author of Modern Architecture in Brazil (1956), whose work has helped to change the skyline of Rio de Janeiro. One of the collaborators in the plans for the new Brazilian capital, Brasilia, as well as a designer of the country's most modern synagogues, was Elias Kaufman (1928– ). The versatile Roberto Burle Marx used the luxuriant Brazilian landscape as an integral part of his architecture. The record of distinguished Jewish architects in the United States is long and impressive. The founder of the tradition was German-born Leopold *Eidlitz, an important figure in the Gothic movement, who began his career in America shortly after the middle of the 19th century. He built, besides a number of churches – his Christ Church Cathedral in St. Louis has been called "the most churchly church in America" – the former Temple Emanu-El, one of the most notable buildings in old New York. Dankmar *Adler, in conjunction with the non-Jew Louis Sullivan, was largely responsible for the evolution of the American skyscraper. Albert *Kahn, creator of the Ford automobile works outside Detroit, has been described as the most influential industrial architect of modern times. Other important Jewish names in 20th-century American architecture areLouis I. *Kahn, who has been called a major form maker; Max *Abramovitz, designer of the Philharmonic Hall in New York; Victor Gruen (d. 1980), who may be said to have invented the suburban shopping center; Albert Mayer (d. 1981) and Percival *Goodman, both well known as city planners as well as architects; Isadore Rosenfield, a leader in functional hospital design; and Gordon *Bunshaft. Ely Jacques *Kahn, Richard J. *Neutra, Paul Friedberg, Lawrence Halprin, Bertrand Goldberg, Rudolph Schindler, Arnold W. *Brunner, Peter D. *Eisenman, Frank O. *Gehry, Robert A.M. *Stern, Daniel *Liebeskind, Stanley *Tigerman, Richard *Meier, and James *Polshek.

Friedensreich Hundertwasser's original and unruly artistic vision expressed itself in pictorial art, environmentalism, philosophy, and design of facades, postage stamps, flags, and clothing (among other areas). The common themes in his work utilised bright colours, organic forms, a reconciliation of humans with nature, and a strong individualism, rejecting straight lines.
He remains sui generis, although his architectural work is comparable to Antoni Gaudí (1852–1926) in its use of biomorphic forms and the use of tile. He was also inspired by the art of the Vienna Secession, and by the Austrian painters Egon Schiele(1890–1918) and Gustav Klimt (1862-1918).
He was fascinated with spirals, and called straight lines "the devil's tools". He called his theory of art "transautomatism", based on Surrealist automatism, but focusing on the experience of the viewer, rather than the artist.
Although Hundertwasser first achieved notoriety for his boldly-coloured paintings, he is more widely known for his individual architectural designs. These designs use irregular forms, and incorporate natural features of the landscape. The Hundertwasserhausapartment block in Vienna has undulating floors ("an uneven floor is a melody to the feet"), a roof covered with earth and grass, and large trees growing from inside the rooms, with limbs extending from windows. He took no payment for the design ofHundertwasserhaus, declaring that the investment was worth it to "prevent something ugly from going up in its place".
From the early 1950s he increasingly focused on architecture. This began with manifestos, essays and demonstrations. For example, he read out his "Mouldiness Manifesto against Rationalism in Architecture" in 1958 on the occasion of an art and architectural event held at the Seckau Monastery. In Munich in 1967 he gave a lecture called "Speech in Nude for the Right to a Third Skin". His lecture "Loose from Loos, A Law Permitting Individual Buildings Alterations or Architecture-Boycott Manifesto", was given at the Concordia Press Club in Vienna in 1968.
In the Mouldiness Manifesto he first claimed the "Window Right": "A person in a rented apartment must be able to lean out of his window and scrape off the masonry within arm's reach. And he must be allowed to take a long brush and paint everything outside within arm's reach. So that it will be visible from afar to everyone in the street that someone lives there who is different from the imprisoned, enslaved, standardised man who lives next door." In his nude speeches of 1967 and 1968 Hundertwasser condemned the enslavement of humans by the sterile grid system of conventional architecture and by the output of mechanised industrial production.[2] He rejected rationalism, the straight line and functional architecture.[3]
For Hundertwasser, human misery was a result of the rational, sterile, monotonous architecture, built following the tradition of the Austrian architect Adolf Loos ("Ornament and Crime"). He called for a boycott of this type of architecture, and demanded instead creative freedom of building, and the right to create individual structures.[4] In 1972 he published the manifesto Your window right — your tree duty. Planting trees in an urban environment was to become obligatory: "If man walks in nature's midst, then he is nature's guest and must learn to behave as a well-brought-up guest."
In the 1970s, Hundertwasser had his first architectural models built. The models for the Eurovision TV-show "Wünsch Dir was" (Make a Wish) in 1972 exemplified his ideas on forested roofs, tree tenants and the window right. In these and similar models he developed new architectural shapes, such as the spiral house, the eye-slit house, the terrace house and the high-rise meadow house. In 1974, Peter Manhardt made models for him of the pit house, the grass roof house and the green service station – along with his idea of the invisible, inaudible Green Motorway.
In the early 1980s Hundertwasser remodelled the Rosenthal Factory in Selb, and the Mierka Grain Silo in Krems. These projects gave him the opportunity to act as what he called an "architecture doctor".

In architectural projects that followed he implemented window right and tree tenants, uneven floors, woods on the roof, and spontaneous vegetation. Works of this period include: housing complexes in Germany; a church in Bärnbach, Austria; a district heating plant in Vienna; an incineration plant and sludge centre in Osaka, Japan; a railway station in Uelzen; a winery in Napa Valley; and a public toilet in Kawakawa.
In 1999 Hundertwasser started his last project named Die Grüne Zitadelle von Magdeburg. Although he never finished this work completely, the building was built a few years later in Magdeburg, a town in central Germany, and opened on October 3, 2005.
In his architectural oeuvre, Hundertwasser put diversity before monotony, and replaced a grid system with an organic approach that enables unregulated irregularities.

In Modern Ereẓ Israel
The architecture in Jewish towns and settlements in modern Ereẓ Israel was conditioned, on the whole, more by the urgent housing requirements of the various aliyyot than by any other consideration. The aesthetic aspect mostly reflected the trends prevalent in the architects' countries of origin.
During the Ottoman period two broad categories of buildings were built in the country: Arab village buildings, constructed on the traditional pattern, without architects, using building materials found nearby and in distinctive harmony with the terrain; and town architecture, which was typically Mediterranean, based on southern Italian mixed with traditional Arab styles. In addition, there were buildings erected by the Turkish government, which employed German architects. These were of a high standard, in a pleasant, restrained style. The buildings erected by the Jewish Colonization Association, in a French style, were attractive and less pretentious.
Large-scale Jewish immigration after World War I brought in its wake an acute housing shortage, and there was a rush of building unprecedented in Oriental countries. The building boom provided full employment for the architects and engineers then in the country, but brought about the entry of a number of self-taught technicians into the building field. Many of the buildings of the period were badly designed. During the same period, but on an entirely different level, there was an attempt by creative architects to achieve a modern Oriental style.
The process of introducing a style and working toward its formation was slow and lasted many years. The experiments begun by Alexander *Baerwald and his pupils even before World War I (notably the buildings of the Reali School and the Technion in Haifa, 1912) were not continued. The work of Ze'ev Berlin in Tel Aviv is also noteworthy, but no one continued his work. British government architects also made attempts to invent an original colonial style, most notable being the European-influenced Clifford Holiday, and A. St. B. Harrison, the romanticist, whose small police stations have remained attractive throughout the years. Lastly, there were the architects of Jewish institutions: F. Kornberg, who designed the university campus on Mount Scopus; Eric Mendelsohn, who designed the Hadassah Hospital on the same hill; Leopold *Krakauer and Richard *Kaufmann who both made a particularly valuable contribution to Israel architecture; and Yoḥanan *Ratner, who designed the Jewish agency building in Jerusalem and who dedicated himself to training architects at the *Technion.
During the 1930s Western European architects became prominent in Palestine. They had studied, and in some cases worked, with such great teachers as Gropius and Le Corbusier. Buildings were erected whose architectural style is unquestionably balanced. These include urban workers' housing projects by Aryeh *Sharon and J. Neufeld, and the buildings by Z. *Rechter, Sh. Misteczkin, D. Karmi, and G. Shani. On the other hand, in contrast to the "Orientalists," there were European architects who brought with them European concepts of architecture and made no attempt to adapt them to local topography or climate or to translate them into local terms.
The establishment of the State of Israel in 1948 led to mass immigration and the need for mass housing. In the early 1950s thousands were living in tin huts, wooden prefabs, and tents. Permanent accommodation had to be built quickly and cheaply. Thus the famous "shikkun" – quickly constructed housing project – became a feature of many parts of the country. Quantity was the criterion, and the qualitative side was neglected, in regard to the building, the materials, and the efficiency of execution, as well as the architectural and aesthetic aspects. Architectural styles in Israel include the Le Corbusier style, the Brazilian and the Japanese, brutalism, and plasticism. There are also attempts to adapt foreign ideas to specific conditions in Israel, particularly in terms of protection against the sun, and to draw inspiration from ancient Oriental architecture. Here and there one can find regional motifs, such as the use of a vaulted concrete shell, or the mixture of concrete and stone.
Heading the list of noteworthy buildings in Israel are the buildings of the Hebrew University in Jerusalem, the Tel Aviv University, and the new Technion campus in Haifa, as well as the Haifa University (architect: Oscar Niemeyer). The Weizmann Institute at Reḥovot has some good teaching and research buildings; the Hebrew Union College building in Jerusalem (architect: Heinz *Rau) is another excellent structure. Important halls that have been built in the major cities include the Mann Auditorium in Tel Aviv (architects: Rechter-Karmi-Rechter), Binyanei ha-Ummah in Jerusalem (architect: Ze'ev Rechter), and the Haifa Theater (architect: Shelomo Gilead. In Jerusalem the Israel Museum complex is outstanding (architects: Mansfeld-Gad), as is the Knesset building (architects: Y. Klarwein and D. Karmi) and the new Supreme Court building (architects: R. Carmi and A. Carmi Melamed). Housing architecture has also improved considerably; well-built projects are to be found, notably, in the Ramat Aviv district in north Tel Aviv (architect-planners: J. Perlstein-R. Banat).

Краткое резюме.

Хотя в вероучительных документах не фигурировал запрет на занятия архитектурой, запрета на изобразительное искусство было вполне достаточно, поскольку профессиональное занятие архитектурой немыслимо без умения рисовать.

Как не существовало в архитектуре еврейских культовых сооружений национального стиля, как не существовало еврейского национального стиля в архитектуре жилых зданий, так до сих пор этот стиль и не сложился.

Архитекторы-евреи начали появляться только тогда, когда евреи начали отходить от строгого исполнения заповедей. Первые известные архитекторы-евреи в Англии являются ярким подтверждением сказанному. Один вообще принял христианство, второй учился в Италии и оставался евреем только по происхождению. Практически все сколько-нибудь известные архитекторы, даже если и были формально верующими, исполняли заповеди и обряды лишь формально. Многие в XVIII веке были изгнаны из еврейских общин, и даже сегодня можно найти ссылки на их детей, но не на них самих, хотя указывается, что имярек является сыном архитектора такого-то. Современные известные архитекторы вообще верующими не являются.

Таким образом иудаизм сыграл злую шутку с отстранением евреев от активного участия в искусстве и архитектуре.

"Запрет на изобразительное искусство" в иудаизме - плод вашего воображения, дорогой Матроскин. Существует запрет на создание 3-мерных изображений. В иудаизме и исламе.



Вы же прекрасно знаете, что еврейский национальный стиль культовых и жилых сооружений существовал и существует.
Надо только захотеть открыть книжки - по еврейской архитектуре Эрец-Исраэль, например.



С искусством - тут вы сами понимаете, что это не так.
Что касается архитектуры последних 1500 лет, то не иудаизм сыграл с евреями злую шутку, а христианство. И это вы тоже прекрасно знаете, так зачем же стулья...

_________________

...לִבִּי בְמִזְרָח וְאָנֹכִי בְּסוֹף מַעֲרָב

Дорогой Онтарио, не совсем понимаю, что Вы имеете в виду под 3-мерным изображением. Тем не менее, давайте решим вопрос практически: приведите пример хотя бы одного человеческого портрета XV века или более раннего периода, достоверно исполненного еврейским религиозным художником. В этом случае я признаю Вашу правоту без каких бы то ни было дальнейших возражений. О скульптурах я даже не упоминаю!


Опять же, не будем спорить попусту - в чем конкретно выражается еврейский национальный стиль синагог? Это при том, что все синагоги без какого-либо исключения построены в стиле, характерном для той местности и того времени, где и когда они строились. И сейчас синагоги строятся в произвольном современном стиле.


Последние 1500 лет иудаизм существовал не только в христианском мире, но при исламе и других религиях. Если у Вас имеются примеры проявления еврейского национального стиля в изобразительном искусстве или национального еврейского архитектурного стиля в исламских странах, приведите примеры с указанием этих национальных особеностей, пожалуйста.